Maya

Kutoka Wikipedia, kamusi elezo huru
Hekalu - piramidi ya Kimaya.
Ukurasa kutoka kitabu cha Kimaya kwa mwandiko ya hiroglifi.

Maya ni jina la ustaarabu uliostawi kusini mwa Meksiko ya leo (rasi ya Yucatan) pamoja na Gwatemala, Belize na sehemu za Honduras na El Salvador kuanzia mwaka 2000 hivi KK hadi waliposhindwa na Wahispania kutoka Ulaya (karne ya 16 na ya 17 BK).

Historia[hariri | hariri chanzo]

Watu wa kwanza waliofika huko kutoka kaskazini walikuwa Waindio, wajukuu wa wahamiaji walioingia Amerika kutoka Asia ya Kaskazini. Hakuna uhakika kufika huko kulitokea lini: labda miaka 10,000 iliyopita[1].

Hao Waindio walikuwa wakulima hodari sana na mazao mbalimbali ambayo leo ni msingi wa chakula kote duniani yalianzishwa na kupandishwa nao, yakiwa pamoja na mahindi, mboga na nyanya. Kilimo cha mahindi hukadiriwa kilianzishwa takriban mnamo mwaka 9000 KK[2][3].

Kilimo kiliweka msingi kwa vijiji na jamii zilizoshirikiana katika maeneo makubwa. Miji ya kwanza inajulikana kuanzia takriban mwaka 1500 KK.

Wamaya waliishi katika vijiji na miji iliyojitegemea na kugombana kati yao mara kwa mara.

Wamaya walibuni mwandiko wa hiroglifi wenye alama nyingi kupita maandishi mengine katika Amerika ya Kale na kutunga vitabu. Waliendeleza pia hisabati, wakijua namba "sifuri" na kuboresha mfumo wa kalenda.

Walikuwa hodari sana katika astronomia yaani elimu ya nyota. Walipamba miji yao kwa majengo makubwa na mazuri na kuwa wafanyabiashara hodari. Sanaa yao ilijua uchongaji wa mawe na pia uchoraji.

Jamii ya Wamaya ilifikia kiwango cha juu kuanzia mwaka 500 KK wakati miji mikubwa ya kwanza ilipotokea. Mnamo mwaka 800 BK jamii za Wamaya katika Yucatan ziliporomoka; wataalamu wengi huamini ya kwamba mabadiliko ya ekolojia na halihewa pamoja na kuchoka kwa rutuba ya ardhi yalisababisha kutoka kwa watu katika makazi ya awali.

Lakini ustaarabu huu uliona tena kipindi cha kustawi katika maeneo mengine hadi kuja kwa Wahispania. Miji mbalimbali ya Wamaya iliendelea kujitetea dhidi ya wavamizi na Nojpeten, mji wa mwisho wa kujitegemea ulitekwa mwaka 1696 tu.

Tanbihi[hariri | hariri chanzo]

  1. ↑ Michael S. Werner (January 2001). Concise Encyclopedia of Mexico. Taylor & Francis. pp. 386–. ISBN 978-1-57958-337-8
  2. ↑ A single domestication for maize shown by multilocus microsatellite genotyping, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 Apr 30; 99(9): 6080–6084. doi: 10.1073/pnas.052125199
  3. ↑ "The Evolution of Corn". University of Utah HEALTH SCIENCES. Retrieved 2 January 2016

Marejeo[hariri | hariri chanzo]

Abrams, Elliot M. (1994). How the Maya Built Their World: Energetics and Ancient Architecture. Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70461-5. OCLC 29564628.
Adams, Richard E. W. (2005) [1977]. Prehistoric Mesoamerica (toleo la 3rd). Norman, Oklahoma, US: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3702-9. OCLC 58975830.
Adams, R. E. W.; W. E. Brown; T. Patrick Culbert (25 Septemba 1981). "Radar mapping, Archaeology, and Ancient Maya Land Use" (PDF). Science. New Series. 213 (4515). American Association for the Advancement of Science: 1457–1463. Bibcode:1981Sci...213.1457A. doi:10.1126/science.213.4515.1457. ISSN 1095-9203. OCLC 863047799. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2015-03-12. Iliwekwa mnamo 2016-04-01. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Andrews, Anthony P. (Winter 1984). "The Political Geography of the Sixteenth Century Yucatan Maya: Comments and Revisions". Journal of Anthropological Research. 40 (4). Albuquerque, New Mexico, US: University of New Mexico: 589–596. ISSN 0091-7710. JSTOR 3629799. OCLC 1787802. Iliwekwa mnamo 2013-12-19. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Aoyama, Kazuo (Julai 2005). "Classic Maya Warfare and Weapons: Spear, dart, and arrow points of Aguateca and Copan". Ancient Mesoamerica. 16 (02). Cambridge University Press: 291–304. doi:10.1017/S0956536105050248. ISSN 0956-5361. OCLC 43698811. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Arroyo, Bárbara (Julai–Agosti 2001). Enrique Vela (mhr.). "El Poslclásico Tardío en los Altos de Guatemala". Arqueología Mexicana (kwa Kihispania). IX (50). Mexico City, Mexico: Editorial Raíces: 38–43. ISSN 0188-8218. OCLC 40772247. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Becker, Marshall Joseph (2004). "Maya Heterarchy as Inferred from Classic-Period Plaza Plans". Ancient Mesoamerica. 15. Cambridge University Press: 127–138. doi:10.1017/S0956536104151079. ISSN 0956-5361. OCLC 43698811. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
Berlo, Janet Catherine (1989). "Early Writing in Central Mexico: In Tlilli, In Tlapalli before A.D. 1000". Katika Richard A. Diehl; Janet Catherine Berlo (whr.). Mesoamerica after the Decline of Teotihuacan, A.D. 700–900. Washington, D.C., US: Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University. ku. 19–48. ISBN 0-88402-175-0. OCLC 18557289.
Blanton, Richard E.; Stephen A. Kowalewski; Gary M. Feinman; Laura M. Finsten (1993) [1981]. Ancient Mesoamerica: A Comparison of Change in Three Regions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44053-X. OCLC 470193044.
Blume, Anna (Machi 2011). "Maya Concepts of Zero". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 155 (1). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, US: American Philosophical Society: 51–88. ISSN 0003-049X. JSTOR 23056849. OCLC 1480553. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Bricker, Victoria R. (Desemba 2007). "A Quarter-Century of Mayan Linguistics". Mexicon. 29 (6). Göttingen, Germany: Verlag Anton Saurwein: 138–147. ISSN 0720-5988. JSTOR 23759758. OCLC 5821915. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Brittenham, Claudia (Spring–Fall 2009). Francesco Pellizzi (mhr.). "Style and substance, or why the Cacaxtla paintings were buried". Res: Anthropology and Aesthetics. 55/56 Absconding. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology and the Harvard Art Museum: 135–155. ISBN 978-0-87365-854-6. ISSN 0277-1322. OCLC 601057415.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Carmack, Robert M. (2001). Kik'ulmatajem le K'iche'aab': Evolución del Reino K'iche' (kwa Kihispania). Guatemala City, Guatemala: Cholsamaj. ISBN 99922-56-22-2. OCLC 253481949. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Carter, Nicholas P. (2014). "Sources and Scales of Classic Maya History". Katika Kurt Raaflaub (mhr.). Thinking, Recording, and Writing History in the Ancient World. New York: Wiley-Blackwell. ku. 340–371.
Caso Barrera, Laura; Mario Aliphat Fernández (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN 1545-2476. JSTOR 25765138. OCLC 356573308. Iliwekwa mnamo 2014-06-22. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat, Mario (2007). "Relaciones de Verapaz y las Tierras Bajas Mayas Centrales en el siglo XVII" (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (kwa Kihispania). XX (2006). Guatemala City, Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología: 48–58. OCLC 173275417. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2013-10-17. Iliwekwa mnamo 2014-06-26. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Chase, Arlen F.; Diane Z. Chase (2012). "Complex Societies in the Southern Maya Lowlands: Their Development and Florescence in the Archaeological Record". Katika Deborah L. Nichols; Christopher A. Pool (whr.). The Oxford Handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology. New York, US: Oxford University Press. ku. 255–267. ISBN 978-0-19-539093-3. OCLC 761538187. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
Christenson, Allen J. (2007) [2003]. "Popul Vuh: Sacred Book of the Quiché Maya People" (PDF). Mesoweb articles. Mesoweb: An Exploration of Mesoamerican Cultures. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2014-10-24. Iliwekwa mnamo 2010-01-23.
Christie, Jessica Joyce (2003). "Conclusions". Katika Jessica Joyce Christie (mhr.). Maya Palaces and Elite Residences: An interdisciplinary approach. Linda Schele series in Maya and pre-Columbian studies. Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press. ku. 315–336. ISBN 0-292-71244-8. OCLC 55889753.
Cioffi-Revilla, Claudio; Todd Landman (Desemba 1999). "Evolution of Maya Polities in the Ancient Mesoamerican System". International Studies Quarterly. 43 (4). Wiley on behalf of The International Studies Association: 559–598. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00137. ISSN 1468-2478. JSTOR 3014022. OCLC 52067195. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Coe, Michael D. (1994) [1992]. Breaking the Maya Code. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-14-023481-0. OCLC 31288285.
Coe, Michael D. (1999). The Maya (toleo la Sixth). New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28066-5. OCLC 40771862.
Colas, Pierre R.; Alexander Voß (2011) [2006]. "Un juego de vida o muerte: El juego de pelota maya". Katika Nikolai Grube (mhr.). Los Mayas: Una Civilización Milenaria (hardback) (kwa Kihispania). Potsdam, Germany: Tandem Verlag. ku. 186–191. ISBN 978-3-8331-6293-0. OCLC 828120761. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Colunga-García Marín, Patricia; Daniel Zizumbo-Villarreal (Winter 2004). "Domestication of Plants in Maya Lowlands". Economic Botany. 58, Supplement. Springer on behalf of New York Botanical Garden Press: S101–S110. doi:10.1663/0013-0001(2004)58[s101:dopiml]2.0.co;2. JSTOR 4256911. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
D'Arcy Harrison, Peter (2003). "Palaces of the Royal Court at Tikal". Katika Jessica Joyce Christie (mhr.). Maya Palaces and Elite Residences: An interdisciplinary approach. Linda Schele series in Maya and pre-Columbian studies. Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press. ku. 98–119. ISBN 0-292-71244-8. OCLC 55889753.
Dahlin, Bruce H.; Christopher T. Jensen; Richard E. Terry; David R. Wright; Timothy Beach (Desemba 2007). "In Search of an Ancient Maya Market". Latin American Antiquity. 18 (4). Washington, DC, US: Society for American Archaeology: 363–384. doi:10.2307/25478193. ISSN 2325-5080. JSTOR 25478193. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
del Águila Flores, Patricia (2007). "Zaculeu: Ciudad Postclásica en las Tierras Altas Mayas de Guatemala" (PDF) (kwa Kihispania). Guatemala City, Guatemala: Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. OCLC 277021068. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2011-07-21. Iliwekwa mnamo 2011-08-06. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Demarest, Arthur (2004). Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of a Forest Civilization. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53390-4. OCLC 51438896.
Demarest, Arthur A.; Tomás Barrientos; Federico Fahsen (2006). "El apogeo y el Colapso del reinado de Cancuen: Resultados e interpretaciones del Proyecto Cancuen, 2004–2005" (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (kwa Kihispania). XIX (2005). Guatemala City, Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología: 826–837. OCLC 71050804. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2015-09-23. Iliwekwa mnamo 2016-04-01. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Diehl, Richard A. (2004). The Olmecs: America's First Civilization. Ancient peoples and places series. London, UK: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-02119-8. OCLC 56746987.
Doyle, James A. (Desemba 2012). "Regroup on "E-Groups": Monumentality and Early Centers in the Middle Preclassic Maya Lowlands". Latin American Antiquity. 23 (4). Washington, DC, US: Society for American Archaeology: 355–379. doi:10.7183/1045-6635.23.4.355. ISSN 2325-5080. JSTOR 23645603. OCLC 54395676. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Drew, David (1999). The Lost Chronicles of the Maya Kings. London, UK: Phoenix Press. ISBN 0-7538-0989-3. OCLC 59565970.
Ellsworth Hamann, Byron (Machi 2008). "How Maya Hieroglyphs Got Their Name: Egypt, Mexico, and China in Western Grammatology since the Fifteenth Century". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 152 (1). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, US: American Philosophical Society. ISSN 0003-049X. OCLC 1480557.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Emmerich, André (2005). "Improving the Odds: Preservation through Distribution". Katika Kate Fitz Gibbon (mhr.). Who Owns the Past?: Cultural Policy, Cultural Property, and the Law. New Brunswick, New Jersey, US and London, UK: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0813536873. OCLC 57893247.
Estrada-Belli, Francisco (2011). The First Maya Civilization: Ritual and Power Before the Classic Period. Abingdon, UK and New York, US: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-42994-8. OCLC 614990197.
Fisher, Chelsea (Desemba 2014). "The role of infield agriculture in Maya cities". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 36: 196–210. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2014.10.001. ISSN 0278-4165.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) Kigezo:Subscription or libraries
Foias, Antonia E. (2014) [2013]. Ancient Maya Political Dynamics. Gainesville, Florida, US: University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-6089-7. OCLC 878111565.
Forsyth, Donald W. (1993). J. P. Laporte, H. Escobedo and S. Villagrán de Brady (mhr.). "La arquitectura Preclásica en Nakbe: Un estudio comparativo de dos periodos" (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (kwa Kihispania). VI (1992). Guatemala City, Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología: 113–121. OCLC 30671693. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2011-09-04. Iliwekwa mnamo 2010-07-21. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Foster, Lynn (2002). Handbook to Life in the Ancient Maya World. New York, US: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518363-4. OCLC 57319740.
Fox, John W. (2008) [1987]. Maya Postclassic state formation. Cambridge, UK and New York, US: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-10195-0. OCLC 297146853.
Freidel, David A.; Linda Schele; Joy Parker (1993). Maya Cosmos: Three Thousand Years on the Shaman's Path. New York: William Morrow & Co. ISBN 0-688-10081-3. OCLC 27430287.
Fuente, Beatriz de la; Leticia Staines Cicero and Alfonso Arellano Hernández (1999). "Art: Sentries of Eternity". Katika A. Arellano Hernández; na wenz. (whr.). The Mayas of the Classic Period. Mexico City, Mexico: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes (CONACULTA). ku. 141–226. ISBN 970-18-3005-9. OCLC 42213077.
Gillespie, Susan D. (1991). "Ballgames and Boundaries". Katika Vernon Scarborough and David R. Wilcox (eds.) (mhr.). The Mesoamerican Ballgame. Tucson, Arizona, US: University of Arizona Press. ku. 317–345. ISBN 0-8165-1360-0. OCLC 51873028. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
Gillespie, Susan D. (Septemba 2000). Rethinking Ancient Maya Social Organization: Replacing "Lineage" with "House". Juz. 102. Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association. ku. 467–484. ISSN 0002-7294. JSTOR 683405. OCLC 1479294. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Guillemín, Jorge F. (1965). Iximché: Capital del Antiguo Reino Cakchiquel (kwa Kihispania). Guatemala City, Guatemala: Tipografía Nacional de Guatemala. OCLC 1498320. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Hammond, Norman; Duncan Pring; Rainer Berger; V. R. Switsur; A. P. Ward (1976-04-15). "Radiocarbon chronology for early Maya occupation at Cuello, Belize". Nature. 260 (260): 579–581. Bibcode:1976Natur.260..579H. doi:10.1038/260579a0. ISSN 0028-0836. Iliwekwa mnamo 2010-08-01.
Hansen, Richard D. (1991). J.P. Laporte, S. Villagrán, H. Escobedo, D. de González and J. Valdés (mhr.). "Resultados preliminares de las investigaciones arqueológicas en el sitio Nakbe, Petén, Guatemala" (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (kwa Kihispania). II (1988). Guatemala City, Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología: 163–178. OCLC 27267772. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2011-07-07. Iliwekwa mnamo 2010-07-21. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
Hohmann-Vogrin (2011) [2006]. "Unidad de espacio y tiempo: la arquitectura Maya". Katika Nikolai Grube (mhr.). Los Mayas: Una Civilización Milenaria (hardback) (kwa Kihispania). Potsdam, Germany: Tandem Verlag. ku. 194–215. ISBN 978-3-8331-6293-0. OCLC 828120761. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Houston, Stephen; John Robertson; David Stuart (Juni 2000). "The Language of Classic Maya Inscriptions". Current Anthropology. 41 (3). Chicago, Illinois, US: University of Chicago Press on behalf of Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research: 321–356. doi:10.1086/300142. ISSN 0011-3204. JSTOR 10.1086/300142. PMID 10768879. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Hutson, Scott R. (Desemba 2011). "The Art of Becoming: The Graffiti of Tikal, Guatemala". Latin American Antiquity. 22 (4). Washington, DC, US: Society for American Archaeology: 403–426. doi:10.7183/1045-6635.22.4.403. ISSN 2325-5080. JSTOR 23072567. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Jackson, Sarah E. (2013). Politics of the Maya Court: Hierarchy and Change in the Late Classic Period. Norman, Oklahoma, US: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-4341-5. OCLC 813300656.
Johnson, Scott A. J. (2013). Translating Maya Hieroglyphs. Norman, Oklahoma, US: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-4333-0. OCLC 814707434.
Jones, Grant D. (1998). The Conquest of the Last Maya Kingdom. Stanford, California, US: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3522-3.
Justeson, John (2010). "Numerical cognition and the development of 'zero' in Mesoamerica". The Archaeology of Measurement: Comprehending Heaven, Earth and Time in Ancient Societies. New York, US: Cambridge University Press. ku. 43–53. ISBN 978-0-521-11990-0. OCLC 501396677.
Kettunen, Harri; Helmke, Christopher (2008). "Introduction to Maya Hieroglyphs: Workshop handbook" (PDF). Mesoweb articles. Mesoweb: An Exploration of Mesoamerican Cultures. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2014-08-08. Iliwekwa mnamo 2015-03-08.
Kimbell Art Museum (2015). "Presentation of Captives to a Maya Ruler". Fort Worth, Texas, US: Kimbell Art Museum. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2015-03-07. Iliwekwa mnamo 2015-03-07.
Koch, Peter O. (2013). John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood: Pioneers of Mayan Archaeology. Jefferson, North Carolina, US: McFarland. ISBN 9780786471072. OCLC 824359844.
Kristan-Graham, Cynthia; Jeff Karl Kowalski (2007). "Chichén Itzá, Tula, and Tollan: Changing Perspectives on a Recurring Problem in Mesoamerican Archaeology and Art History". Twin Tollans: Chichén Itzá, Tula, and the Epiclassic to Early Postclassic Mesoamerican World. Washington, DC, US: Trustees for Harvard University. ku. 13–84. ISBN 978-0-88402-323-4. OCLC 71243931.
Laporte, Juan Pedro; Vilma Fialko (1994). J.P. Laporte; H. Escobedo (whr.). "Mundo Perdido, Tikal: Los enunciados actuales" (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (kwa Kihispania). VII (1993). Guatemala City, Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología: 335–348. OCLC 33865804. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2011-09-15. Iliwekwa mnamo 2012-02-26. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Looper, Matthew G. (1999). "New Perspectives on the Late Classic Political History of Quirigua, Guatemala". Ancient Mesoamerica. 10 (2). Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press: 263–280. doi:10.1017/S0956536199101135. ISSN 0956-5361. OCLC 86542758.
Looper, Matthew G. (2003). Lightning Warrior: Maya Art and Kingship at Quirigua. Linda Schele series in Maya and pre-Columbian studies. Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70556-5. OCLC 52208614.
Love, Michael (Desemba 2007). "Recent Research in the Southern Highlands and Pacific Coast of Mesoamerica". Journal of Archaeological Research. 15 (4). Springer Netherlands: 275–328. doi:10.1007/s10814-007-9014-y. ISSN 1573-7756. Iliwekwa mnamo 2006-02-01.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Lovell, W. George (2000). "The Highland Maya". Katika Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. Macleod (eds.) (mhr.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 2. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ku. 392–444. ISBN 0-521-65204-9. OCLC 33359444. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
Lovell, W. George (2005). Conquest and Survival in Colonial Guatemala: A Historical Geography of the Cuchumatán Highlands, 1500–1821 (toleo la 3rd). Montreal, Canada: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-2741-9. OCLC 58051691.
Macri, Martha J.; Matthew George Looper (2003). The New Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs. The civilization of the American Indian series. Juz. 1: The Classic period inscriptions. Norman, Oklahoma, US: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 9780806134970. OCLC 773482216.
Marcus, Joyce (2004a). "Maya Commoners: The Stereotype and the Reality". Katika Jon C. Lohse; Fred Valdez, Jr. (whr.). Ancient Maya Commoners. Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press. ku. 255–284. ISBN 9780292705715. OCLC 60745417 – kutoka Project MUSE. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
Marcus, Joyce (2004) [2003]. "The Maya and Teotihuacan". Katika Geoffrey E. Braswell (mhr.). The Maya and Teotihuacan : reinterpreting early classic interaction. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. ku. 337–356. ISBN 9780292705876. OCLC 254181446.
Martin, Simon; Nikolai Grube (2000). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. London and New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05103-8. OCLC 47358325.
Masson, Marilyn A.; Carlos Peraza Lope (2004). "Commoners in Postclassic Maya society: Social versus economic class constructs". Ancient Maya Commoners. Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press. ku. 197–223. ISBN 0-292-70571-9. OCLC 803179517. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
Masson, Marilyn A. (2012-11-06). "Maya collapse cycles". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (45). Washington, DC, US: National Academy of Sciences: 18237–18238. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10918237M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1213638109. ISSN 1091-6490. JSTOR 41829886. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
Matthew, Laura E. (2012). Memories of Conquest: Becoming Mexicano in Colonial Guatemala (hardback). First Peoples. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, US: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3537-1. OCLC 752286995.
McVicker, Donald (Januari 1985). "The "Mayanized" Mexicans". American Antiquity. 50 (1). Washington, D.C., US: Society for American Archaeology: 82–101. doi:10.2307/280635. ISSN 2325-5080. JSTOR 280635. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Milbrath, Susan (1999). "Stars, the Milky Way, Comets, and Meteors". Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars. Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press. ku. 249–293. ISBN 0292752253. OCLC 40848420 – kutoka Project MUSE. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
Miles, Susanna W. (1952). "An Analysis of the Modern Middle American Calendars: A Study in Conservation". Katika Sol Tax (mhr.). Acculturation in the Americas. Proceedings and selected papers of the International Congress of Americanists. Chicago, Illinois, US: University of Chicago Press. ku. 273–284. OCLC 180504894.
Miller, Mary (1999). Maya Art and Architecture. London, UK and New York, US: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20327-X. OCLC 41659173.
Miller, Mary; Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05068-6. OCLC 901448866.
Oakley, Francis; Rubin, Benjamin B. (2012). "Sacral Kingship and the Origins of Religious, Social, and Political Orders". Katika Patrick McNamara; Wesley J. Wildman (whr.). Science and the World's Religions: Origins and Destinies. Juz. 1. Santa Barbara, California, US: Praeger/ABC-CLIO. ku. 69–90. ISBN 978-0-313-38732-6. OCLC 768417915. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
Olmedo Vera, Bertina (1997). "The Mayas of the Classic Period". Katika A. Arellano Hernández; na wenz. (whr.). The Mayas of the Classic Period. Mexico City, Mexico: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes (CONACULTA). ku. 9–99. ISBN 970-18-3005-9. OCLC 42213077.
Phillips, Charles (2007) [2006]. The Complete Illustrated History of the Aztecs & Maya: The definitive chronicle of the ancient peoples of Central America & Mexico – including the Aztec, Maya, Olmec, Mixtec, Toltec & Zapotec. London, UK: Anness Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-84681-197-X. OCLC 642211652.
Popenoe de Hatch, Marion; Christa Schieber de Lavarreda (2001). J.P. Laporte, A.C. Suasnávar and B. Arroyo (mhr.). "Una revisión preliminar de la historia de Tak'alik Ab'aj, departamento de Retalhuleu" (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (kwa Kihispania). XIV (2000). Guatemala City, Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología: 990–1005. OCLC 49563126. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2009-12-11. Iliwekwa mnamo 2009-02-01. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Pugh, Timothy W.; Leslie G. Cecil (2012). "The contact period of central Petén, Guatemala in color". Social and Cultural Analysis, Department of. Faculty Publications. Paper 6. Nacogdoches, Texas, US: Stephen F. Austin State University.
Quezada, Sergio (2011). La colonización de los mayas peninsulares (PDF). Biblioteca Básica de Yucatán (kwa Kihispania). Juz. 18. Merida, Yucatan, Mexico: Secretaría de Educación del Gobierno del Estado de Yucatán. ISBN 978-607-7824-27-5. OCLC 796677890. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2013-11-04. Iliwekwa mnamo 2013-01-20. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help) Archived 4 Novemba 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Recinos, Adrian (1986) [1952]. Pedro de Alvarado: Conquistador de México y Guatemala (kwa Kihispania) (toleo la 2nd). Antigua Guatemala, Guatemala: CENALTEX Centro Nacional de Libros de Texto y Material Didáctico "José de Pineda Ibarra". OCLC 243309954. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Reents-Budet, Dorie; Antonia E. Foias; Ronald L. Bishop; M. James Blackman; Stanley Guenter (2007). J.P. Laporte, B. Arroyo and H. Mejía (mhr.). "Interacciones políticas y el Sitio Ik' (Motul de San José): Datos de la cerámica" (PDF). Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala (kwa Kihispania). XX (2006). Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, Guatemala: 1416–1436. OCLC 173275417. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2011-09-14. Iliwekwa mnamo 2009-11-14. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help) Archived 14 Septemba 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Restall, Matthew; Florine Asselbergs (2007). Invading Guatemala: Spanish, Nahua, and Maya Accounts of the Conquest Wars. University Park, Pennsylvania, US: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-02758-6. OCLC 165478850.
Rice, Prudence M.; Don S. Rice (2009). "Introduction to the Kowoj and their Petén Neighbors". Katika Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice (eds.) (mhr.). The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala. Boulder, Colorado, US: University Press of Colorado. ku. 3–15. ISBN 978-0-87081-930-8. OCLC 225875268. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
Rice, Prudence M.; Don S. Rice; Timothy W. Pugh; Rómulo Sánchez Polo (2009). "Defensive Architecture and the Context of Warfare at Zacpetén". Katika Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice (eds.) (mhr.). The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala. Boulder, Colorado, US: University Press of Colorado. ku. 123–140. ISBN 978-0-87081-930-8. OCLC 225875268. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
Ros, Narin. "Maya Museum Database". Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-07-08. Iliwekwa mnamo 2015-06-08. Full list from FAMSIarchived from the original on 2015-06-08.
Rosenwig, Robert M. (2010). The Beginnings of Mesoamerican Civilization: Inter-Regional Interaction and the Olmec. New York, US: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-11102-7. OCLC 402542556.
Ross, Nanci J. (Januari 2011). "Modern tree species composition reflects ancient Maya "forest gardens" in northwest Belize". Ecological Applications. 21 (1). Washington, DC, US: Ecological Society of America: 75–84. doi:10.1890/09-0662.1. ISSN 1051-0761. JSTOR 29779638. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Salisbury, David; Mimi Koumenalis; Barbara Moffett (19 Septemba 2002). "Newly revealed hieroglyphs tell story of superpower conflict in the Maya world" (PDF). Exploration: the online research journal of Vanderbilt University. Nashville, Tennessee: Vanderbilt University Office of Science and Research Communications. OCLC 50324967. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2015-05-20. Iliwekwa mnamo 2015-05-20. {{cite journal}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; 2014-11-02 suggested (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Saturno, William A.; David Stuart; Boris Beltrán (2006-03-03). "Early Maya Writing at San Bartolo, Guatemala". Science. New Series. 311 (5765). American Association for the Advancement of Science: 1281–1283. Bibcode:2006Sci...311.1281S. doi:10.1126/science.1121745. ISSN 1095-9203. JSTOR 3845835. OCLC 863047799. PMID 16400112. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
Schele, Linda; Peter Mathews (1999). The Code of Kings: The language of seven Maya temples and tombs. New York, US: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-85209-6. OCLC 41423034.
SFU Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. "Featured Artifacts: Mayan Eccentric Flints". Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada: Simon Fraser University Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-11-02. Iliwekwa mnamo 2015-03-31.
Sharer, Robert J. (2000). "The Maya Highlands and the Adjacent Pacific Coast". Katika Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. Macleod (eds.) (mhr.). The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Vol. II: Mesoamerica, part 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ku. 449–499. ISBN 0-521-35165-0. OCLC 33359444. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
Sharer, Robert J.; Loa P. Traxler (2006). The Ancient Maya (toleo la 6th, fully revised). Stanford, California, US: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4817-9. OCLC 57577446.
Stuart, David; George Stuart (2008). Palenque: Eternal City of the Maya. London, UK: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05156-6. OCLC 227016561.
Szymanski, Jan (2013). "Between Death and Divinity. Rethinking the Significance of Triadic Groups in Ancient Maya Culture" (PDF). PhD Dissertation. Warsaw, Poland: University of Warsaw. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2014-11-03. Iliwekwa mnamo 2014-01-13.
Taladoire, Eric; Benoit Colsenet (1991). ""Bois Ton Sang, Beaumanoir": The Political and Conflictual Aspects of the Ballgame in the Northern Chiapas Area". Katika Vernon Scarborough and David R. Wilcox (eds.) (mhr.). The Mesoamerican Ballgame. Tucson, Arizona, US: University of Arizona Press. ku. 161–174. ISBN 0-8165-1360-0. OCLC 51873028. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)
Tanaka, Yuki (2008). A Comparative Study of Maya Hieroglyphic Writing and Japanese Orthography in the Quirigua Hieroglyphic Corpus. Ann Arbor, Michigan, US: ProQuest. ISBN 9780549999898.
Taube, Karl A. (2004) [2003]. "Tetitla and the Maya Presence at Teotihuacan". Katika Geoffrey E. Braswell (mhr.). The Maya and Teotihuacan : reinterpreting early classic interaction. Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press. ku. 273–314. ISBN 9780292705876. OCLC 254181446.
Tedlock, Barbara (1992) [1982]. Time and the Highland Maya (toleo la Revised). Albuquerque, New Mexico, US: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-1358-4. OCLC 45732799.
Thompson, J. Eric S. (Julai–Septemba 1932). "A Maya Calendar from the Alta Vera Paz, Guatemala". American Anthropologist. New Series. 34 (3). Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association: 449–454. doi:10.1525/aa.1932.34.3.02a00090. ISSN 0002-7294. JSTOR 661903. OCLC 1479294. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Thompson, J. Eric S. (1966). "The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem in Demography". Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1966). London, UK: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 23–37. doi:10.2307/3031712. JSTOR 3031712. Iliwekwa mnamo 2013-12-04. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
Thompson, J. Eric S. (1990) [1970]. Maya History and Religion. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2247-1. OCLC 715926981.
Thompson, J. Eric S. (2 Mei 1974). "Maya Astronomy". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 276 (1257, The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient World). London, UK: The Royal Society: 83–98. Bibcode:1974RSPTA.276...83T. doi:10.1098/rsta.1974.0011. ISSN 0261-0523. JSTOR 74276. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Tiesler, Vera; Andrea Cucina (Desemba 2006). "Procedures in Human Heart Extraction and Ritual Meaning: A Taphonomic Assessment of Anthropogenic Marks in Classic Maya Skeletons". Latin American Antiquity. 17 (4). Washington, D.C., US: Society for American Archaeology: 493–510. doi:10.2307/25063069. ISSN 2325-5080. JSTOR 25063069. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Tobin, Thomas J. (2001). "The Construction of the Codex in Classic- and Postclassic-Period Maya Civilization". Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US: Duquesne University. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2002-10-17. Iliwekwa mnamo 2015-03-09.
Valdés, Juan Antonio (1994). "El Grupo A de Uaxactun: Manifestaciones arquitectónicas y dinásticas durante el Clásico Temprano" (PDF). I Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1987 (edited by J.P. Laporte, H. Escobedo and S. Villagrán) (kwa Kihispania). Guatemala: Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología: 98–111. OCLC 31177419. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2014-11-03. Iliwekwa mnamo 2010-07-21. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
Van Stone, Mark (2011). "It's not the End of the World: emic evidence for local diversity in the Maya Long Count". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union (278). doi:10.1017/S1743921311012610.
Viqueira, Juan Pedro (2004) [1995]. "Chiapas y sus regiones". Chiapas: los rumbos de otra historia (kwa Kihispania). Mexico City, Mexico: Centro de Investigaciones Filológicas with Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social (CIESAS). ku. 19–40. ISBN 968-36-4836-3. OCLC 36759921. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_chapter= ignored (|trans-chapter= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
WAYEB. "Museums & Collections". European Association of Mayanists (WAYEB). Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2015-05-11. Iliwekwa mnamo 2015-06-08.
Webster, David (Machi 2000). "The Not So Peaceful Civilization: A Review of Maya War". Journal of World Prehistory. 14 (1). Springer: 65–119. doi:10.1023/a:1007813518630. ISSN 1573-7802. JSTOR 25801154. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Webster, David; William L. Fash, Jr.; Claude F. Baudez; Berthold Riese; William T. Sanders (1989). The House of the Bacabs, Copan, Honduras (PDF). Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University. ku. i–iv, 1–111, 113–116. ISBN 9780884021773. JSTOR 41263469. OCLC 18557303. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
Williams, Josh (2010). "Mississippian and Maya Eccentric Flints". Springfield, Missouri: Board of Governors, Missouri State University. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-11-02. Iliwekwa mnamo 2012-12-29.
Wise, Terence; McBride, Angus (2008) [1980]. The Conquistadores. Men-at-Arms. Juz. 101. Oxford, UK and New York, US: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85045-357-7. OCLC 12782941.
Witschey, Walter R. T.; Clifford T. Brown (2012). Historical Dictionary of Mesoamerica. Plymouth, Devon, UK: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-7167-0. OCLC 754105610.
Zorich, Zach (Novemba–Desemba 2012). "The Maya Sense of Time". Archaeology. 65 (6). New York, US: Archaeological Institute of America: 25–29. ISSN 0003-8113. JSTOR 41804605. OCLC 1481828. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)

Marejeo mengine[hariri | hariri chanzo]

Viungo vya nje[hariri | hariri chanzo]

Wikimedia Commons ina media kuhusu:
Rudishwa kutoka "https://sw.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maya&oldid=1330271"